Concept of Soul / Self in the Theistic Religions by Guest Blogger Ng Yeow Foo

Singapore Dharma-buddy, Ng Yeow Foo (a.k.a. Tiger), has contributed the following excellent article. Thank you so much Tiger!

Concept of Soul / Self in the Theistic Religions: Analysis of the Brahmajāla Sutta

Theism or theistic religion is simply defined as a system of belief in the existence of at least one god. As such, there are many flavours of theism, differentiated by the number of god(s) and the nature of god(s) in the respective belief systems: monotheism, the doctrine or belief in a single creator God (e.g., Judaism, Christianity and Islam); polytheism, the belief in more than one god (e.g., the ancient Greek belief system); pantheism, the belief that everything is God, or the whole universe is regarded as manifestation of God (e.g., Vedas of Brahmanism). The conception of God must somehow be treated as analogous or identical with the idea of soul or self. Without soul theory as the ground, be it material or immaterial, it is rather difficult to establish theistic spirituality and the existence of supreme God.

It must be noted that the Buddha was mainly criticizing the soul theories of the Upaniṣadic tradition which are extremely similar to the traditional or contemporary Christian soul theories (Gunapala, 1987; p. 1). This is evidenced in the second half of the Brahmajāla Sutta, where the Buddha lists out sixty-two types of wrong views (micchā diṭṭhi) held by some ascetics and Brahmins at that time, of whom are having fixated ideas about the past or future. As such, the Buddha has intelligently dealt with almost all philosophical or religious thoughts; some of those are still surviving up to the present time, in which most of them center around the idea of SOUL / SELF.

What draws our attention here are the Eternalists, Eternalists and partly Non-Eternalists (partial-eternalists), and Chance-Originationists views which are of speculators about the past, having fixed views about the past, and who put forward various speculative theories about the past. The holder of these views based solely on their memories of last existences obtained upon achieving a certain degree of mental concentration. The eternalists, for example, would proclaim the eternity of self and the world in four ways simply because they fall short of the ability to recall the more distant pasts, perceive this world and the “imaginary” self as permanent and eternal. As for the partial-eternalism, the Sutta rightly describes the origin of the God-as-the-Creator idea as in all theistic religions. The so-called the Creator-God concept is indeed a mistake made by both the “Maha-Brahmā who has lost his memories about his existence in the previous world” and by men’s misunderstanding of this cosmological story (as in the Biblical story), and the subsequent misconstruction via yogic experience (Bodhi, 1978; p. 19-23). Similarly, those who are of chance-originationists view, due to the inability of recalling beyond their last existence, think that the self and the world arise by chance since they speculate that they don’t exist before that. This is the doctrine of fortuitous origination of self and the world.

The Buddha points out that these speculative views are always rooted on the past or future. However, the majority of the metaphysical views (44 types) are nested on the post-mortem future, our destiny after death. The first three sets (of the 44 types) are still dealing with eternalism, but they tend to lean towards future and all are of various types of post-mortem consciousness or self’s survival after death. Eternalist is at one end, while annihilationist is at the other end embracing the belief that the destruction of “being” is the end of the individual experience. There are seven ways of proclaiming annihilationism described in the Sutta, only the first one which identifies self with physical body, is purely materialistic. The other six are the more subtle way of defining annihilationism, where the self now is identified with inner principles that reside in the divine world, the fine material realm and the four immaterial planes. Only with the destruction of this self it is said that the final annihilation takes place. Would it not sound like some sort of annihilation in the divinity sense, in other words the “annihilation of the soul in God” as the ultimate destiny of a spiritually perfected sainthood? Finally, the proclaimers of the doctrine of Nibbāna Here and Now seem to commit the fundamental error of identifying concept of permanent self to Nibbānic experience, which is also unrightfully misinterpreted (Bodhi, 1978; p. 27-31).

The Sutta concludes with the Buddha attributing the ground of all the sixty two views to contact of the six sense-bases. It seems that the problem appears upon repeated contact, by which it conditions feelings, and feelings condition craving, craving conditions clinging, and so on as in the paṭicca-samuppāda formula. The interesting point I would like to point out here is the antidote that the Buddha has prescribed: “…when monk understands as they really are the arising and passing away of the six bases of contact, their attraction and peril, and the deliverance from them, he knows that which goes beyond all these views.” Those views, which largely contribute to the emergence of some major religions in the present time are indeed “fused” by the failure to realise the impermanence of six sense-bases that condition contact. Once this is understood, the idea of a metaphysical soul/self will become meaningless.

Gunapala claims that the Buddha maintains that the belief-in-a-soul theory which is so prominent in some ideological systems can be traced to an emotional bias. The so-called ideas about “I” and “self” are considered as “thoughts haunted by craving concerning the inner self”. Additionally, the desire and attachment for the consciousness and its types give rise to dogmas and emotional biases (Gunapala, 1987; p. 9). And this is when one would end up grasping after systems, craving for “identity” which oftentimes creates a wall separating oneself from others who simply hold the different belief systems. Of course, the root of all these is the contact through six sense-bases that conditions the forming of all metaphysical views.

This Sutta is also known as “all-embracing net of views”. Indeed the Buddha has beautifully pointed out the full spectrum of “personal views” (and their problems) during his time which is still applicable until today, and it can be extended to non-religious belief systems as well. It must be noted however that this article is not meant to put down on other religions or belief systems. In my opinion, the Buddha is offering an alternative gateway to the highest attainment of morality and knowledge without utilising the theory of soul/self. It is the attachment to the self idea which blinds the people from seeing things as they truly are, and hence the emergence of violence and terrorism that keep haunting the world today.

Bibliography:
Bodhi, Bhikkhu, trans. The Discourse on the All-Embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentaries. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1978.

Walshe, Maurice, trans. The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995. (Originally published under the title, Thus Have I Heard, 1987.)

Gunalapala, Dharmasiri. A Buddhist Critique of the Christian Concept of God. Singapore: The Buddhist Research Society, 2^nd Ed, 1987.

When Herons Leave the Lake

Ven. Sheng-yen

Some inspire grace and awe. Even in the animal realm, there are those that move through life with such grace that it touches our hearts to behold them. Who is not in awe of giraffes running on open grassland, of blue whales breaching ocean waves, or of herons landing on wetlands? There have been those among us that inspire this same awe as we see them move through life with such a natural ease and grace. Like lotus and herons, they rise above the murky waters of life to witness each moment with ever renewing freshness. Such people give us a vision of how life could be for each of us, how the world could be if we could only be at ease ourselves and see with such clarity!

Last year on February 3rd, my Shifu (師父), Chan Master Sheng-yen, 聖嚴法師, passed from this world. It was like the heron we had long since taken for granted had suddenly taken flight and left the lake. Geese and mallards cannot compare with this graceful, mindful creature! How sorely he is missed!

John Daido Loori

On October 9th, 2009, John Daido Loori spread his wings and lifted off the lake leaving still waters.

Now, last Friday, Robert Aitken Roshi also has spread his wings in flight leaving me to wonder what we do when all the herons have left the lake? Each time a master passes, Buddha's final breath takes on new relevance: "Strive on!" We inherit their vows to live a life of compassion and rededicate ourselves to our daily practice. Masters like Sheng-yen arose out of need, like a high pressure cell naturally flowing into a low pressure cell. On their passing, a new void is created and others must rise to the challenge with renewed vitality.

Robert Aitken Roshi

When herons leave the lake, in due season they or others will return. In the meantime, we ourselves must rise above the murky waters and move with mindfulness and grace.

Restlessness During the Practice of Silent Illumination

A friend I met at a Silent Illumination retreat at the Dharma Drum Retreat Center last December wrote, "I have trouble focusing on the present, my mind swings back and forth like a monkey swings on a tree. Last night I meditated using the Silent Illumination method, I couldn't be silent more than 1 minute. I will keep trying....".  How many of you meditators out there have experienced this?  Everyone, I'm sure.  How many meditators that have been practicing more than 5 years still experience this at times?  Unless you are made of special stuff, again, everyone, I'm fairly certain.  Now here is where it really hurts.  How many of you meditators out there that have been practicing for 30 years or longer still have meditations like this occasionally?  No one?  Well, I guess I'm the only one that still has meditations like this at times.

There are many causes of restlessness.  The fact that you choose to sit during a time when you are feeling restless is coincidental.  It's just that you become acutely aware of restlessness during meditation.  So first, lets look at the causes of restlessness and what can be done about them before meditation.  Then, let's look at what we can do about restlessness during meditation.

Causes of Restlessness and Some Possible Remedies

We all have days when we have more energy than usual.  This can be physical or mental energy.  Generally, we like to have positive energy.  It helps us be productive at work, have fun at play, and makes us feel alive!  Positive mental and physical energy is a result of a balanced, healthy and wholesome lifestyle.  When we eat fresh, wholesome, nutritious food, get enough daily exercise, have a good daily routine, don't subject ourselves to unnecessary stress, have a practice that helps us manage stress, and get sufficient sleep, chances are we will have considerably more energy that we would if our lifestyle was not so healthy.  If you are the type that wakes up and feels like jogging, sitting in meditation might be a bit of a struggle at that time.  This is why yogis traditionally did yogasanas before meditating, to improve fitness, circulation, mindfulness, and lower excessive energy.  They also did mindful breathing exercises after yogasanas to reduce inertia and dullness just before meditating.  By the time the yogi sits to meditate, her energy is balanced, her mind is well oxygenated and clear, and she begins meditation in an optimal state.  Even at Chan retreats at DDRC, we do walking meditation, yogasanas and forms of "moving meditation" to balance the practice of sitting meditation.  So, if you have high energy, you might do the Eight Forms Moving Meditation, walking meditation, or yogasanas before sitting meditation (a little pranayama wouldn't hurt either).

Eight Forms Moving Meditation


Sometimes, maybe too often, restlessness can occur because of energy of a more negative quality.This can happen because we are eating foods or drinking beverages that have a stimulating effect on the body and mind.  It can happen because we are worrying, which causes restlessness but can also lead to dullness. Or, we can be restless because we feel uncomfortable about something we have done or said.  Restlessness is a natural byproduct of worry, aversion, fear, anger, and hatred on the one hand, and craving, selfishness, greed, and lust on the other.  This is why, especially in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, yogis are first taught Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pali), or virtue and moral discipline.  You can learn to meditate, but from a practical standpoint if you are doing things that go against the fundamental precepts you are sure to have restlessness in your meditation.  The Five Precepts are:

1. Refraining from killing.
2. Refraining from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
3. Refraining from sexual misconduct.
4. Refraining from lying or deceiving.
5. Refraining from intoxicants.

By upholding the Five Precepts, we naturally have a clearer conscience and virtue brings an uplifted spirit and brightness to the mind.  This is foundational.

We are also taught to be aware of the Three Poisons: greed, hatred, and ignorance, and be mindful of the Noble Eightfold Path.

Right View
Right Intention
Right Speech
Right Action
Right Livelihood
Right Effort
Right Mindfulness
Right Concentration


This all makes sense on a very practical level.  If we are not acting in such a way that we are creating conflict and discord, the environment in which we live will be more pleasant, less stressful and our mind will naturally be more settled.

Practicing mindfulness is particularly beneficial because it help us become aware of excessive worrying and put our awareness back on what is at hand.  Cultivating mindfulness over a period of time helps us to become calmer and more balanced.  We may still get surprised, disappointed, and upset, but these feelings are shorter and shorter lived.  We don't harbor ill feelings in our hearts and naturally begin each new day with a blank slate.  Ill feeling harbored in our hearts act like a computer virus in a computer.  Mindfulness is like an anti-virus program that detects and fixes worrisome, fearful, aggressive, or hurtful thoughts.

What to Do about Restlessness During Meditation

Ok, so now you are living a good, wholesome, healthy, virtuous life.  How come there is still restlessness.  First of all, it is the nature of the mind to think thoughts.  There is nothing unnatural about it.  In some forms of meditation, the meditator simply acknowledges the thought that has arisen and then gently redirects the focus back to the method.  So if you are following the breath and the mind has drifted to a thought, you simply let go of the thought, relax, and go back to mindfulness of breathing.

If thoughts still arise and lead to other thoughts, you may need to gently put a bit more effort into staying with the breath.  There are some ways of doing this that seem to work for some people and other ways that work better for others.  One way is to count each exhalation until you get to ten exhalations, and then start all over at one again (count the breaths).  Another way that is to more actively participate in the experience of breathing.  For example, be aware of how the breath begins, the duration, how it ends without controlling the breath.  One that I like is to feel appreciation for the life-giving inhalation and the purifying and relaxing exhalation.  My personal favorite is to focus on totally relaxing into each breath, to fully rest in the breath, totally letting go with each new inhalation and exhalation.  This tends to very quickly settle both the mind and body and can lead to a very relaxed, alert state from which it is good to start practicing Silent Illumination.

Silent Illumination can be difficult to practice if you don't have good methods of dealing with restlessness.  Because you are putting your awareness on the entire body at once, it can be elusive and more difficult to stay with that the breath.  In that case, you might go back to following the breath using one of the techniques I mentioned above to focus and settle the mind.  When the mind is less scattered and more unified, and you are fully present in each breath, then shift the focus to full awareness of the body just sitting.  This will very quickly lead to a state where the boundaries of the body and environment begin to blur and then disappear and you can just be aware of the environment "just sitting".  By this time, the mind will be very settled and you'll be able to continue effortlessly.

Everyone moves through periods of restlessness and drowsiness and everyone learns to deal with them in their own way.  Sometimes one way is more effective and sometimes another.  This is part of the skill of meditating that can only be developed over time.  I still feel very much like a beginner and still have days that seem more problematic than others.  My wife and I separated on April 13th and then on May 7th I was laid off and still haven't found a job. I'm now going through a divorce. These kinds of things can be unsettling.  Practice Metta, Loving Kindness, and Karuna, Compassion, on yourself and on those that are being disagreeable in your life and this will go a long way to making each new day a great new day for practice!